Geron Essay - 7094 Words

Approximately how much has the average life expectancy in the United States increased since 1900? Answer | a. | 45 years | | b. | 30 years | | c. | 15 years | | d. | 5 years | | | | | | | When one looks at the heart, blood vessels, lungs and respiratory tract as the locus of death on is using which of the following approaches to determine death Answer | a. | Irreversible loss of the soul from the body | | b. | Irreversible loss of the capacity for bodily integration | | c. | Irreversible loss of flow of vital fluids | | d. | Irreversible loss of consciousness or social interaction | According to Erikson’s description of developmental eras in the human life cycle, during adolescence children†¦show more content†¦| religious attitudes that emphasized the beauty of heaven and ignored the fires of hell | Nineteenth century mourning customs and the Names Project AIDS Memorial Quilt celebrates the life of the deceased and represents the significance of community. Answer | a. | True | | b. | False | __________ influences the way we grieve and provides guidelines for our behavior Answer | a. | Norms | | b. | Beliefs | | c. | Values | | d. | Society | Rembrandt van Rijns work The Suicide of Lucretia illustrates what theme? Answer | a. | suicide | | b. | fear of death | | c. | sudden, unexpected death | | d. | natural death | Which of the following is not an item that Neanderthals were buried with to assist them with the passage from the land of the living to the land of the dead? Answer | a. | stone implements | | b. | blankets | | c. | food | | d. | ornamental shells | During the 19th Century Answer | a. | Those who died were thought to sleep until the Second Coming of Christ | | b. | Gravestones became monuments | | c. | The place of burial was either inside the church or within its vicinity. | | d. | Death was a private event | When a childs pet dies and a parent tells the child Dont worry about it, well get another one, what notion is being communicated to the child? Answer | a. | Life is not important. | | b. | Loved ones can be replaced. | | c. | People shouldnt worry aboutShow MoreRelatedMarketing Challenges1099 Words   |  5 Pagesrents out their car, which would otherwise be unused in their driveway. According to Geron (2013) Forbes estimates that this new economy will generate revenue into people’s wallets that will surpass $3.5 billion this year, with growth exceeding twenty-five percent. This new share economy has been able to grow at a very successful rate and has impacted a stagnant wage market into a disruptive economic force (Geron, 2013, para 9). One element that has helped to drive the share economy is technologyRead MoreImpact Of Technology On Domestic And The Global Economy1254 Words   |  6 Pageswill always be consumers who do not want to share what they have nor do they want to share with others. There will always be a social stigma around sharing. A lot of people think that renting to strangers was an unusual thing, or an irrational idea (Geron, 2013). They will continue to put their money into the traditional economy. The traditional economy is going to just have to figure out ways to advertise and market to people who may like the share/rent business better. Amazon has already made it whereRead MoreMarketing Of A Global Economy1454 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"sharing economy† figured out. He rents his home for $100 a night on the website Airbnb while living in a single room he cornered off from the house while it’s being rented (Geron, 2013). He also turns his car into a ride-sharing taxi service whi ch earns him another $100 per night, giving him a total income of $3,000 a month (Geron, 2013). This impressive story is what drives people to participate in the sharing economy; making big money while offering a cheaper alternative service seems like a win-winRead MoreCan The Sharing Economy Market Be Disruptive? The Traditional Economy?1371 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction A sharing economy, is when owners utilize digital clearinghouses to capitalize the unused capacity of things they already have, and consumers rent from their peers rather than rent or buy from a company (Geron, 2013). Consumers today can share or offer resources like cars, room rentals, dog sitting and skills to people that require their services for low cost. Companies today, like Airbnb and Uber are capitalizing off â€Å"The Share Economy† market by providing services based of theRead MoreHuman Genetic Engineering is Morally Justified Essay811 Words   |  4 PagesCONTENTION 1: Human genetic engineering can cure disease when other methods may not exist. For example, at the Geron Corporation, a biotech firm in Menlo Park California, scientists have discovered how to make healthy cells will divide indefinitely. They are now working on a project that will result in keeping unhealthy cells from continuing such a division. In simplest terms, at the Geron laboratories, scien tists are using genetic engineering to help eventually cure cancer. They are not endangeringRead MoreEssay on Amazon Continues to Grow Through Mergers and Acquisition824 Words   |  4 Pagesindividuals who have similar tastes in literature. This social interaction about literature is something that Amazon had been missing. While Amazon’s customers have had the option to leave a customer review they have never had the chance to interact. (Geron) The developers in Amazon’s Kindle Division worked on adding a Goodreaders feature to the Kindle line. Currently the app can be used on the Kindle, Kindle Paperwhite, or the Kindle Paperwhite 3G when the devices are connected to a wireless networkRead MoreA Research Study On Stem Cell Research1307 Words   |  6 PagesAngeles Times, documents a situation concerning the financial aspect of stem cell research. A company, known as Geron Corporation, was involved in research concerning therapy for spinal cord injuries. The co mpany received millions of dollars from a private institution and provided patients with great hope of therapy, as well as healing. However, the funding was eventually pulled from the Geron research trial; consequently, taking the early therapeutic treatments along with it (1). The main goal of stemRead MoreThe Roles Of A Research : Proper Evaluation Of Sources In Research1570 Words   |  7 Pagestransition to clinical applications without sufficient understanding of the mechanisms of effect is both inefficient and unwise. (King and Perrin, 2014). This statement is illustrated through the description of a trial carried out in 2009 by the Geron Corporation in California. This trial was begun after rigorous review by the FDA to ensure safety of the patients, and ended soon after it started with just four patients having received the treatment. Results found were not conclusive because tooRead MoreEssay on Embryonic Stem Cells Research1005 Words   |  5 Pagesreopen the trail once the researchers got it under controlled. The â€Å"first phase of the trail will consist of people who between 7 and 14 days started the therapy, or suffered complete thoracic spinal cord injuries†. This trail is being done by the Geron Corporation, they plan to seek more FDA approval to expand the trail and enroll people with complete cervical or severe spinal cord injuries. If the FDA approves more trail studies, researcher may find cures for diseases such as Parkinson’s, typeRead MoreWhat Is The Estimation Of The Forest Femining Methods904 Words   |  4 Pagesthe training sets to the hyper space is called margin. SVR (support vector regression) is the regression method that ignores the points that are outside of the margin and uses the subset of the data that are around the margin to fit the data \cite{Geron}. This makes SVR to be a powerful classification tool but at the same time with higher computational cost, especially when working with larger training sets \cite{Karamizadeh}. SVR has been successfully tested in several remote sensing studies such

Est1 Task 1 Essay - 727 Words

Part A Company Q does not currently have a positive attitude toward social responsibility. They recently closed several stores in higher crime areas. This has eliminated job positions that were held by residents of the area and taken away revenue from the community itself. This is not being socially responsible. The company just started offering a limited selection of health and organic foods despite that the demand from customers has been there for years. They have also made the decision to not donate day old food to the local shelters, opting instead to waste the food by throwing it away. Company Q needs to make several changes in their company behavior in order to become more socially responsible. Part B Company Q closed†¦show more content†¦Company Q has had a large demand from their customers to provide healthy and organic foods over the last few years. They recently started offering a small variety of health and organic food items, which is a step in the right direction toward being socially responsible. They need to be more attentive to the needs and wants of their customers as it shouldn’t have taken years to bring in these demanded products. When there is a demand for products and the company doesn’t respond to that demand, it’s perceived by the consumers that the company simply doesn’t care about their needs and wants. Bringing in a selection of these products was a good start in satisfying their customers. However, with such a demand for these items, having a small and limited selection is just not enough. Expanding the line of health and organic food items will accomplish two things. First and foremost it will appease the current c ustomers and bring in a new clientele that is health conscious, thus helping to create a healthier community and at the same time increasing sales. The higher margin on the health and organic items coupled with the increase in sales will really boost the overall profit margin of the company. Company Q does need to be sure that they don’t over price these products so as to not push away business due to overpricing. Company Q was approached about donating their day old food to the local shelters and they refused on basis of concern that employeesShow MoreRelatedEst1 Task 1 Essay784 Words   |  4 PagesEST1 Task #1 Western Governors University EST 1 Task #1 Company Q is a corporation whose stakeholders have not placed a major emphasis on social responsibility, instead it appears that the primary focus is placed on profit. With their profits on the decline, they are shying away from opportunities to help their community. By placing a higher priority on social responsibility Company Q will have the opportunity to help the community through charitable donations, employeeRead MoreEst1 Task 1723 Words   |  3 PagesI am tasked is to evaluate Company Q’s current attitude toward social responsibility and recommend three actions that Company Q could take to improve their attitude toward social responsibility. In evaluating Company Q’s attitude towards social responsibility there are a couple of examples that displays the company’s lack of social responsibility awareness. Company Q closed a couple of stores in higher-crime-rate areas with a claim that the stores are consistently losing money. The issue hereRead MoreEs t1 - Task 1 Essay771 Words   |  4 PagesPart A Most businesses start with the primary thought of making money. As a small grocery store chain, it is hard to compete with the larger national grocery stores, which often force the smaller local stores out of business. It is this dynamic, with the help of consumers, which is forcing both small and large businesses to reconsider their organizational goals and outcomes to include social responsibility. A successful business understands their customers, learns what their customers presentlyRead MoreEST1 Sample Essay619 Words   |  3 PagesEST1 Task 310.2.1-05 1 EST1 Task 310.2.1-05 Western Governors University EST1 Task 310.2.1-05 2 Giving back to the people who provide for your way of life should be considered a norm, however in todays world, there are still companies that dont see the value it provides. Social responsibility is crucial in ensuring a companys continued place in their established service areas. While Company Q is viewing social responsibility as a burden or hardship placed upon them, theyRead MoreEst1 Essay690 Words   |  3 PagesEST1 Task 1 Kara Kinikini Student ID: 265037 Business Management Many believe that business entities should have an ethical duty to be socially responsible, to work towards increasing its positive effects on society while decreasing its negative effects. Many organizations look for opportunities to be socially responsible while also creating shareholder wealth. Company Q is a small local grocery store chain located in a major metropolitan area. They have recently closed a couple of storesRead MoreAssignment Questions On Ethical Situations2379 Words   |  10 Pages John Rolph EST1: Ethical Situations in Business Task 2 Standards and Procedures 1.) Information Confidentiality: As an employee, you will be exposed to client-sensitive as well as company-sensitive information that is to be viewed only by those who have the authority or permission to do so. Such information to be considered â€Å"confidential† includes business contracts, financial information, internal correspondence, and any and all documentation (electronic or paper-based) that is not authorizedRead MoreTask 2: Est1 Essay example2372 Words   |  10 PagesJohn Rolph EST1: Ethical Situations in Business Task 2 Standards and Procedures 1.) Information Confidentiality: As an employee, you will be exposed to client-sensitive as well as company-sensitive information that is to be viewed only by those who have the authority or permission to do so. Such information to be considered â€Å"confidential† includes business contracts, financial information, internal correspondence, and any and all documentation (electronic or paper-based) that is not authorized

Chernobyl Disaster Essay Sample free essay sample

On April 26. 1986. a beastly white freshness bejeweled a little. little-known town in cardinal Ukraine. now notoriously recognized by the international community as Chernobyl. During the early forenoon hours of the 26th. operators had been running an misguided experiment on reactor unit figure four. during which a spike in the operating degree of the nucleus caused a ruinous detonation. The ensuing eruption of radionuclides. both from the initial detonation and from the subsequent fires. turned much of the Ukrainian countryside into a radioactive barren. Furthermore. predominating air currents blew radioactive clouds of atoms over a big swath of Europe. enlightening many states and jeopardizing the overall nutrient supply of the full continent. Analyzing both short-run jeopardies. and long-run effects. many in the scientific community have proclaimed Chernobyl the worst environmental catastrophe of all time ( Read 66-73 ) . It is the intent of this paper to to the full look into ever y facet of this colossal crisis. How bad was the accident? What caused it and how was it fixed? Finally. and most significantly. can humanity learn from its errors and forestall farther such bad lucks? The Accident Situated 65 stat mis north of Kiev in Ukraine following to the little town of Pripyat. the Chernobyl power station included four reactors. each with an estimated end product of a 1000 megawatts. Unbeknownst to the nearby occupants. a unsafe experiment was conducted on reactor unit four during the early forenoon of April 26. 1986. Unfortunately. the Chernobyl operators breached legion safety protocols in order to go on with their enterprise that hinted at catastrophe from the really beginning ( Martin 16-19 ) . At about 1:23 AM on April 26. operators within the Chernobyl complex heard legion thumps emanating from deep inside the reactor edifice. These baleful sounds were shortly followed by a horrifically disgusting clang and an detonation which ripped through the reactor composite and buckled the metre thick concrete walls of the containment edifice. Emergency power units kicked on. uncovering a dimly lit control room sparsely inhabited by frenetic works operators. Though cipher had a clear thought of the extent of the state of affairs. foremost on everyone s head was forestalling a nucleus meltdown. Numb with horror. Alexander Akimov. in bid of the dark reactor displacement. watched as his corridors filled with dust and fume. pin downing work forces and machine in a ferocious hell ( Read 64-66 ) . Those looking at the composite from the exterior noticed a unusual ghastly white freshness. as did those looking down into the empty crater where the reactor nucleus lay wholly fragmented. Flickers spookily crisscrossed the forenoon air as electrical systems short-circuited. while operators–realizing for the first clip the badness of the accident–frantically attempted to derive control over the state of affairs. Burst pipes allowed superheated steam to get away from many unpredictable points. blistering many workers who were trying to contend the legion black lead and electrical fires now ramping like an unmanageable animal throughout t he edifice. Some of these workers stumbled about the works. blisters covering every exposed spot of tegument on their organic structures. in vain seeking to make the evident safety of the out-of-doorss ( Read 66-73 ) . It was determined afterward that 32 firemans and works operators had been killed in the first few yearss of the Chernobyl calamity. Worse yet. dust from the tattered reactor nucleus. coupled with the firing graphite hemorrhoids. released several times the sum of radiation discharged when the United States dropped both atomic bombs on the Nipponese metropoliss of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ( â€Å"The Causes of the Accident and Its Progress† 1-2 ) . Because of the general deficiency of radiation monitoring equipment. the Soviet authorities learned the true extent of the accident merely after Swedish forces working at atomic power workss in Sweden began to notice elevated degrees of radiation ( Martin 19 ) . Tragically. much of the radioactive stuff blown into the ambiance was carried by the air current into the environing countryside. every bit good as distant democracies. Forests environing Chernobyl turned a rust colour as a consequence of high degrees of radioactive taint. Howev er. about 70 per centum of the radioactive dust ended up polluting the democracy of Byelorussia. jeopardizing its H2O and nutrient supplies while doing an addition in the figure of reported malignant neoplastic disease instances and deceases ( â€Å"Belarus† ) . Nearby. in the metropolis of Kiev. the radiation degree peaked at an addition of 160 to 300 times what could be expected from normal background radiation. To give some grasp of the extent of the environmental harm caused by the release of radioactive isotopes from Chernobyl. the Swiss authorities banned fishing in certain lakes for about a twelvemonth after the detonation due to high concentrations of the radioisotope Cesium-137 in aquatic life. Chernobyl besides takes incrimination for an unbelievable addition in the sum of radiation absorbed by farm animal and agricultural merchandises scattered over Europe. particularly within the Norse states. For case. because of inordinate degrees of radiation. about 75 per centum of the caribou slaughtered in Sweden could non be consumed by worlds ( Marples 61-77 ) . However atrocious the environmental impact of radiation may look. it is nil compared to the single calamities experienced by people who were earnestly radiated. Soviet physicians described the followers at a meeting in Paris on â€Å"The Medical Handling of Skin Lesions following High Level Accidental Irradiation† in 1987: Male works worker who received an estimated mean entire organic structure dosage of 9 Gy. . . He developed skin lesions from 5 yearss of irradiation. finally affecting 40 % of the organic structure surface country. He showed epilation of the scalp and ciliums. but the superciliums were non affected. Lesions were severe over both natess as a consequence of his sitting on a contaminated surface. These countries of tegument developed blisters and focal point of ulceration. which required covering with free tegument transplants taken from the patient s flak 2 months after the accident. ( Mould 69 ) Many pregnant adult females who were exposed to radiation had abortions for fright of holding offspring with serious physical defects or mental deceleration. Lending some justification to these abortions. the U. S. Nuclear Re gulatory Commission estimated that about five per centum of the foetuss exposed to at least 12 rems–a measuring of the sum of ionising radiation absorbed by organic structure tissues ( â€Å"Rem† ) –from Chernobyl would be born with serious mental deceleration ( Marples 43-44 ) . Some of the mutants caused by radiation were to turn out both shocking and terrorization to those who lived in the most to a great extent contaminated zones: â€Å"To the horror of the dwellers. a sow in Narodici gave birth to a litter of piggies without eyes. News of this spread and farther monsters were discovered in the same part: a foal with eight legs. a poulet with a caput shaped like a firedrake s. a piggy with an oculus half the size of its caput. a calf with a lip like an elephant s bole. and a caprine animal with its hind legs three times longer than its front ones† ( Read 270 ) . While scientists are certain that there will be many long-run deceases attributable to the exposure of people to radiation from the Chernobyl accident. many scientists are in serious dissension as to the figure of deceases and the badness of other long-run jobs. Presently. scientists estimate that in the following 70 old ages. between 200 and 100. 000 people will decease because of radiatio n exposure to the radioactive dust from the Chernobyl catastrophe. While this scope is immense. most experts agree that the eventual figure will finalise at approximately 10. 000 deceases. largely happening because of an addition in leukemia instances in those countries most to a great extent radiated ( Marples 52-53 ) . Causes of Chernobyl The accident at Chernobyl has sparked much unfavorable judgment about the safety of atomic energy. while raising frights about atomic power workss in the United States and other Western states. In the decennary following the catastrophe. images of severely scarred workers and horrifically distorted animate beings bit by bit found their manner into the custodies of the media ( Read 270 ) . Therefore. people throughout the Earth began to oppugn whether or non an accident on the graduated table of Chernobyl could go on at place ( Goldin 20 ) . Cardinal to explicating a sensible reply to this inquiry is an in-depth apprehension of how and why the state of affairs in cardinal Ukraine unfolded as it did ; accordingly. this subdivision is dedicated to documenting the sequence of events that contributed to the cataclysmal accident at the Chernobyl works. In 1949. Igor Kurchatov–already a outstanding Soviet scientist–petitioned Joseph Stalin for permission to construct an experi mental atomic power station utilizing cognition gained from captured German physicists. With permission given. the first atomic power station in the universe was commissioned on July 27. 1954. and christened Obninsk. An early design. this power station produced a mere five megawatts of electricity. non even plenty to supply for the electrical demands of the existent power composite. Therefore. when American interior decorators began working on new pressurized H2O reactors. the Soviet Union instantly began similar work on a new power station in hopes of implementing the practical usage of atomic fission to carry through the state s burgeoning demand for electrical energy. Design and edifice of this new power station was debatable at best. chiefly due to lacks in quality control. Therefore. when the Soviet Union subsequently resolved to greatly spread out its usage of atomic fission. experts decided that the safest. surest reactor design would be a big modified version of the early Obninsk reactor ( Read 3-15 ) . Construction of several new RBMK-1000 reactors commenced in stantly. Approximately translated. the acronym RBMK means â€Å"reactor cooled by H2O and modified by graphite† ( Marples 3 ) . Basically. a RBMK reactor is a immense stack of black lead with several hundred channels drilled vertically through the C matrix. Some of these channels contain boron rods ; B is an first-class neutron absorber which serves as a control mechanism for the reactor. The remainder of the channels contain little pipes–or force per unit area tubes–each of which contain 1000s of enriched U pellets which undergo atomic fission. Huge circulation pumps flush H2O through the tubings and over the U ; this H2O serves as a thermic transportation medium. absorbing the heat from the atomic fission of the uranium pellets. both to maintain the nucleus from runing and to supply steam to whirl electricity bring forthing turbines. However. as the black lead moderator is placed following to the U fuel elements. about five per centum of the thermic energy released by t he U is transferred to the black lead. This means that the black lead in RBMK reactors routinely maps at temperatures transcending 700 Celsius. breathing a swoon ruddy freshness. Unfortunately. black lead has the awful inclination to fire at high temperatures when exposed to O. so the full nucleus must be placed into a immense metal container where inert gases are invariably circulated ( Marples 4-8 ) . While at first glimpse the RBMK may hold seemed to be a safe option to more advanced pressurized water-cooled reactors. upon farther review several major defects became evident. The British atomic Energy Authority released a list of seven grounds why RBMK reactors would non be licensed within the United Kingdom. Paramount on this list was the deficiency of a containment construction to supply protection in the event of a meltdown. Soviet interior decorators felt that there was no demand to supply a monolithic containment construction to protect against an seemingly extremely improbable failure. Another major defect of the reactor was that. in the event of an accident. it took a full 18 seconds to take down the B control rods into the black lead heap. an infini ty in the universe of atomic reactions ( Read 15 ) . Intensifying the above design jobs was the hastiness with which the Soviet Union built its atomic power capacity. Because of the rapid enlargement of its atomic plan. there were frequent deficits in preciseness parts needed in the building of the atomic power plants–including the Chernobyl works. However. there was tremendous force per unit area on those responsible for the building of power workss to acquire the reactors bring forthing electricity rapidly. Thus. many constituents were built and improvised at the edifice site. Sing that shrieking and valve constituents must be assembled with utmost preciseness. it is improbable that all of these make-shift constituents met even indulgent Soviet safety criterions ( Read 30-31 ) . The RBMK was the type of reactor chosen to power the new. tremendous power-producing composite situated at Chernobyl. Conceived in the late sixtiess as the solution to energy deficits in the Eastern portion of the Soviet Union. Chernobyl was to finally suit six one-thousand megawatt RBMK reactors ( Read 28-35 ) . When the Chernobyl works eventually became operational in December 1978. several major troubles were noticed in the operation of the immense RBMK reactors. First. the reactors tended to be extremely unstable when run at low power scenes. Under these fortunes. power could wholly fall in within the reactor. asking drawn-out restart processs. Therefore. when a prostration appeared at hand. operators often withdrew many more Bs rods than was permitted by Soviet ordinances. merely to give the reactor a rush of power to forestall shutdown. Second. the crude computing machine used to treat information and proctor reactor systems printed out improbably complex. deep information. non easy understood by human operators. This would present jobs in the event of a crisis. when information must be interpreted rapidly and accurately. Finally. operators at the works had to supervise a myriad of dials and switches. doing it hard for them to understand wholly what the reactor was making at all times. important cognition in the event of an accident ( Read 41-42 ) . Besides the physical jobs that hampered the RBMK reactors used at the Chernobyl works. the mentality of Soviet functionaries was such that information on yesteryear jobs was withheld even from operators who could profit from this information. To these functionaries. Soviet engineering was infallible and the few jobs that surfaced in the reactors could non perchance be due to faulty design. For case. there was a meltdown within a reactor at a works in Leningrad ( now St. Petersburg ) . Although this reactor was indistinguishable to the RBMK reactors used in the Chernobyl works. Soviet functionaries did non see fit to warn the Chernobyl works of a possible job. fearing that this information might sabotage the Soviet atomic industry ( Read 39-40 ) . Despite the design weaknesss of the RBMK reactors. an accident may neer hold occurred at Chernobyl had operators non attempted a foolishly designedexperiment ( â€Å"The Causes of the Accident and Its Progress† ) . Trying to determine the length of clip that inactiveness would maintain the turbines whirling in the event that the reactors had to be shut down. operators bit by bit began diminishing the power end product of reactor figure four at 1:05 on April 25. 1986 ( Martin 16-19 ) . However. unexpected demand for power forced operators to keep the reactor at about 50 per centum power for an extra nine hours. When the experiment eventually resumed at 12:28 AM. April 26. operators further reduced the power. by chance cut downing the reactor to one per centum runing power. The RBMK reactor became unstable as xenon gas–a neutron absorber–formed in the nucleus. To forestall the reactor from wholly closing down. operators withdrew virtually all of the B control rods between 1:00 and 1:20 AM. leting power to lift to about seven per centum. Afraid that the automatic closure systems would SCRAM–or instantly shut down–the reactor. works operators flipped off the exigency shutdown systems. At 1:23. steam was shunted to a antecedently idle turbine ; at 1:23:40. power increased in the reactor as H2O began to flux more rapidly over the fuel elements. As one Soviet expert explained. â€Å"The reactor was now running free. isolated from the outside universe. its control rods out. and its safety system disconnected. The reactor was free to make as it wished† ( Martin 17 ) . The following events occurred really rapidly as operators pressed the manual closure button–drastically cut downing H2O flow over the fuel elements–to analyze how long inactiveness would maintain the turbines whirling and bring forthing power. Had the exigency systems been connected. the loss of the electrical burden would hold caused the reactor to SCRAM ( Martin 17 ) . However. all automatic exigency systems were off-line. and at this low power puting closing off the turbines caused the RBMK reactor to spike at approximately 100 times its full operating power ( Marples 14 ) . Predictably. the reactor nucleus shattered. spiting pieces of radioactive black lead and U throughout the destroyed reactor edifice and over the Ukrainian countryside. The hot black lead of the core–no longer isolated from oxygen–began to smoulder. let go ofing dozenss of radioactive stuff. which was trapped within its C matrix largely iodine-131 and cesium-137. into the ambiance. ( General Accounting Office 8 ) . While the defective experiment on the twenty-four hours of April 26 was the precipitating causal factor in the ruinous devastation of reactor figure four at the Chernobyl composite. faulty technology and design jobs with the RBMK reactor played major lending functions. However. the most important contributing factor seems to hold been a complacence of head: a psychological phenomenon that seems to repeat. For illustration. those who built the Titanic neer imagined that this great ship could drop ; hence. the deficiency of lifeboats onboard became a major factor in one of the worst calamities of all clip. In much the same manner. Soviet interior decorators neer thought that their designs could neglect. Therefore. they did non see fit to construct luxuriant containment constructions around their RBMK reactors. Besides. trial operators at Chernobyl neer thought that their plan could do any existent harm. For that ground. they proceeded even when jobs instantly became evident. Calamities such as Chernobyl are seldom caused by a individual event or job ; instead. they are normally the apogee of a twine of fortunes which together point to catastrophe. Interests and Tradeoffs Throughout the class of human events. many gigantic undertakings have been undertaken for the benefit of society. However. often the same undertakings that are extremely good to big populations when successful are improbably damaging to a localized group when they fail. Chernobyl is an outstanding illustration of this interesting–and tragic–phenomenon. Its building ab initio benefited many 1000s of people in the eastern subdivision of the Soviet Union. Conversely. while its failure caused jobs for many people. these jobs were chiefly focused on the comparatively little population life in the countryside environing the reactor itself. This is an utmost illustration of the â€Å"Tragedy of the Commons† : those having power from Chernobyl on average–had much more to derive from Chernobyl’s building than they stood to lose if something were to travel amiss ; the hazard population was much smaller than the profiting population ( Hardin 507 ) . Because of the tremendous complexness of this state of affairs. it must be examined from a figure of different and viing positions. But. before the existent involvements and trade-offs affecting Chernobyl are discussed. a small must be said about the initial development of the Soviet atomic industry. Sadly. when the Soviet atomic energy plan was in its babyhood. the chief argument concentrating on atomic power revolved around the issue of money. non safety. Other factors. such as province secretiveness and a sense of patriotism. were besides placed above safety when the Soviet Empire erected its national atomic plan. In peculiar. this sense of secretiveness and patriotism caused many outstanding Soviet leaders to disregard jobs internal to the atomic industry. For illustration: When the benefits of atomic energy were being discussed by the Soviet Central Committee. members of the military constitution had information about a ruinous accident at Mayak–a little experimental reactor ab initio built to bring forth Pu for atomic arms. However. the Central Committee felt that this failure was in no manner due to jobs in the reactor design itself. and that the of import thing was to larn about the effects of monolithic doses of radiation on the human organic structure. Therefore. this highly of import issue was non even considered by those who could hold steered Soviet atomic industry in a different way. Sing this information from a traditional Western angle on the value of human life. one must retrieve that the Soviet atomic plan was developed during the most intense period of the Cold War. when Soviet leading was convinced that an atomic war was inevitable and that cognition about radiation could let Soviet society to endure a atomic holocaust. Sadly. these positions and attitudes fostered a instead dreamy attack to atomic safety among those of rank and stature in the Soviet authorities. Why spend monolithic sums of money on public safety if society is expected to be destroyed anyhow ( Read 10-11 ) ? Ranking pecuniary costs higher than atomic safety is one trade-off that straight fueled the Chernobyl catastrophe. However. without the lifting societal force per unit areas demanding energy. this deficiency of safety might neer hold had the opportun ity to do a major accident. It is this really hungering for energy that has become the ultimate trade-off in modern society ; people want all the â€Å"goodies† that have been developed because of engineering: electric ranges. air conditioning. computing machines. wassailers. telecasting. etc. Thus. developed states are progressively being forced to develop new beginnings of energy and implement them with an deficient respect for proper testing. When Soviet contrivers in the late sixtiess decided to raise the immense Chernobyl power works. their preparation did non state them that RBMK reactors were inherently insecure. Alternatively. they studied projections of power ingestion by those populating in the western portion of the Soviet Empire ; harmonizing to the Ukraine Department of Energy. ingestion of electricity would treble by the twelvemonth 1990 ( â€Å"The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant: Design and Construction† ) . Consequently. the determination to construct a new power works was easy ; th e lone inquiries involved were where it was to be built and what type would outdo suit the demands of Soviet society. At this point. one may inquire: Why did the Soviet Union want to manufacture atomic power workss when they had immense militias of natural gas and coal in eastern Siberia? This inquiry has no speedy easy reply. but at that place appears to hold been two major factors. First. the Soviet authorities was obsessed with remaining in the head of atomic engineering. Western states had already demonstrated the ability to construct Pressurized Water Cooled Reactors far in progress of what Soviet engineering could execute. and this made the Soviet authorities wary about detaining future production of atomic power workss. Second. most of the energy roar in the Soviet Union was happening on the European side of the Empire while most of the resources were 1000s of stat mis off in eastern Siberia. Because the denseness of energy obtained from atomic fuel is 1000s of times higher than that obtained from the best chemical procedures. it was cheaper to transport little measures of U ore 1000s of stat mis than to direct huge measures of coal and natural gas ( â€Å"Siberia† ) . This must be qualified with the fact that atomic power workss are by and large more expensive to run than conventional 1s ; but Soviet contrivers were wagering that gradual betterments in atomic engineering would finally let it to shoulder the bulk of electric production within the state ( Read 10 ) . Because Soviet engineering by and large lagged behind that of Western states throughout the Cold War. attempted duplicates of advanced American Pressurized Water Cooled Reactors failed. What was needed was a speedy manner to spread out massively the production of electricity within the huge country of the Soviet Union ( Read 9-10 ) . An easy reply came in the RBMK reactor. Because this reactor does non utilize a secondary thermal transportation cringle to drive steam generators. Soviet functionaries felt that the monolithic containment construction needed for other atomic reactor types was non needed in an RBMK. This would salvage money in two ways: foremost. the overall reactor would hold a higher efficiency. utilizing less uranium fuel per kilowatt hr of electricity produced ; 2nd. outgos on constructing a monolithic steel and concrete containment construction could be eliminated. In this manner. Soviet interior decorators minimized costs at the disbursal of safety safeguards ( Read 15 ) . Obviously. electricity generated by Chernobyl benefited 1000s of people spread over the eastern sector of the Soviet Union. However. the cost of the tragic accident has been much more extremely concentrated among those in a little geographical country. In the instance of Chernobyl. the Republic of Belarus and the Scandinavian countries–coupled with other European nations–took a big portion of the released radiation. This tends to take one to believe that the effects of this accident were spread over a huge country. But. this ignores the larger image: while these other states did absorb big measures of radiation. the radionuclides that managed to go such a distance from Chernobyl were largely ephemeral isotopes of caesium and I. In contrast. much of the radioactive atoms spread over Pripyat and the immediate countryside near Chernobyl were heavier. longer-lived atoms such as Uranium and Thorium. Therefore. long after other European states have healed from the rough effects of radiation. Northern Ukraine will still be uninhabitable. unable to agitate the lingering effects of radiation imposed upon it by Chernobyl ( Marples 61-77 ) . When analyzing the Chernobyl incident. it must be remembered that Chernobyl was an accident in the truest sense. for the fact remains that except for an unfortunate trial tally on the reactor. this atomic calamity may good hold neer occurred. Therefore. the costs and trade-offs so far discussed can non be viewed as consequences of determinations made by society to derive something at the disbursal of something else. Alternatively. the instead slack safety safeguards undertaken in the Soviet atomic industry must be considered in footings of the instead utmost set of fortunes created by Chernobyl operators that caused the accident. Soviet applied scientists might good hold been right in their appraisal that farther shielding of the reactor was unnee ded ; nevertheless. they were catastrophically incorrect in their pick of forces to run the reactor on a twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours footing ( â€Å"The Causes of the Accident and Its Progress† ) . The lone facet of Chernobyl where traditional costs and trade-offs can be examined involves the immediate wake of the catastrophe. when the Soviet bureaucratism systematically slowed down attempts to incorporate the job. When dispatched. Boris Scherbina. the curate responsible for fuel and energy within the Soviet Union. was faced with the important determination of evacuating the nearby town of Pripyat or swearing to the unpredictable Ukrainian air currents. The physicists reding him favorite immediate and complete emptying of the town s 50 1000 members. However. Scherbina was worried that such a big emptying could non be concealed from the remainder of the Soviet population. Though the media could hold been controlled. when rumours reached Kiev about the Chernobyl catastrophe. there might hold been a mass hegira of over three million people. doing terror and unrest in one of the Soviet Union s largest metropoliss. This would badly impact the international prestigiousness of the Sov iet Union. something that had to be protected at all costs harmonizing to Party indoctrination. Finally. more than 36 hours after the initial catastrophe. Scherbina decided that evacuating Pripyat was the right class of action. Sadly. had this order been given instantly. many people would non hold been needlessly exposed to radiation ; salvaging 1000s of possible malignant neoplastic disease instances ( Read 100-110 ) . Solutions Attempted at Chernobyl and Recommendations for the FutureThe Chernobyl accident has been an oculus opener in many respects. Not merely did it coerce the international community to more closely size up the atomic industry. but it created a testing land for unseasoned techniques and equipment used to battle atomic accidents. For the first clip since Hiroshima and Nagasaki. the universe would be confronted with the beastly images of radiated work forces. adult females. and kids. life in a manmade radioactive barren. Globally. authoritiess and high public functionaries wondered how the Soviet bureaucratism would respond to the state of affairs. Simultaneously. people across the planet wondered what could be done to guarantee that an accident of this magnitude would neer happen once more. The intent of this subdivision is both to detail the Soviet response to Chernobyl and to propose possible actions that could be taken to forestall farther atomic calamities. Members of the fire station assigned to the Chernoby l power station were awakened at 1:23 A. M. on the forenoon of April 26. 1986. by the disgusting sound of the 4th unit reactor nucleus exploding. When the dominating officer of the fire station ran outdoors. he was instantly besieged with an revelatory sight of the tattered reactor combustion in the distance. Before thought. he instantly ordered his work forces to battle the raging fire that now consumed the full reactor unit. His immediate concern was the roof which joined reactor complex four to reactor complex three. Obviously. the worst thing that could go on would to hold the fire spread to the other reactors. perchance turning a atrocious state of affairs into something far worse. However. as the heroic firemans battled the fires on the roof without radiation suits. non merely did they hold small success. but they began to experience dizzy and weak. the first symptoms of terrible radiation illness. By 4:00 A. M. the same forenoon. extra firemans arrived on the scene ; eventually. they began to hold some success battling the hellish fires which were let go ofing dozenss of radioactive stuff into the atmosphere every hr ( Read 74-75 ) . While the firemans risked life and limb to battle a state of affairs that they neither started nor could grok. works operators–for the first clip to the full understanding the badness of the accident–frantically worked to run out H gas from the turbines in order to forestall farther detonations. The other three reactors were so consistently shutdown to decrease the opportunity that another reactor would develop ruinous jobs due to the spreading fires. Meanwhile. Boris Scherbina. wrestled with the inquiry of evacuating Pripyat. The Ministry of Health concluded that emptying was unneeded ; nevertheless. the scientists reding Scherbina argued that the safest. surest class of action was emptying. Fearing the political and international reverberations of a general emptying. Scherbina stalled. blowing cherished clip that could hold prevented the gratuitous exposure of 1000s of citizens to unneeded degrees of radiation ( Read 100-104 ) . By 5:00 P. M. April 26. all the fires–except for the fire raging in the reactor hall–were extinguished. Scherbina. who was sing the Chernobyl site to acquire a firsthand position of the catastrophe. was faced with another determination: Let the black lead in the reactor nucleus to fire out. or invent some clever method of snuff outing it. Advised both that it would take about two months for the black lead in the nucleus to fire out. and that the U fuel left in reactor nucleus could run if the temperature rose excessively much. Scherbina decided that some manner would hold to be found to manually snuff out the fire. Water would hold proved counterproductive ; at the temperature that the reactor was firing. H2O would break up into its component elements of H and O. an explosive combination. The lone method that the Soviet scientists could invent was to drop monolithic measures of sand into the reactor edifice from vibrating choppers. The sand was laced with a mixture of B. lead. and dolomite. The lead was used to chill the nucleus because it has a boiling point of 1. 744 C ( a substance absorbs a great trade of energy during a alteration of province reaction ) . The dolomite broke down into Mg. Ca and C dioxide. which farther absorbed heat ; moreover. the C dioxide helped forestall O from making the fire. Finally. B is an outstanding neutron absorber and its intent was to halt any lingering fission happening within the nucleus ( Read 106 ) . This procedure seemed to worked ; nevertheless. it was necessary to drop sand into the reactor for more than a month to guarantee that the fire would non re-start. In all. some 5000 dozenss of assorted substances were dropped into the disintegrated reactor nucleus before chopper operations were terminated ( â€Å"The Cause of the Accident and Its Progress† ) . Finally. at 10:00 A. M. . April 27. Scherbina ordered a general emptying of the town of Pripyat. Families were told to pack adequate apparels and supplies to last three yearss ; most decision makers at this clip thought the emptying would be impermanent. Those people fortunate adequate to be forewarned by household or friends working at Chernobyl had clip to pack bags ; others were forced to go forth virtually all of their ownerships behind. Because of the fantastic leading accomplishments of the ground forces commanding officer in charge of emptying. General Berdov. the town was wholly evacuated within two hours ( Read 110-112 ) . By May 1. the reactor state of affairs appeared to be under control. However. merely when Soviet functionaries felt certain that the nucleus would wholly stabilise. radionuclides emanating from the reactor began to radically increase ; the reactor was acquiring hotter. non cooler. Now Soviet scientists began to oppugn the whole premiss of dropping sand on the damaged reactor. Uranium does non necessitate O to undergo a concatenation reaction ; besides. with every burden of sand dropped on the reactor. a big figure of radioactive atoms was thrown into the air. Furthermore. because sand is a good dielectric. it was pin downing the heat from the U in the nucleus. the exact country that had to be unbroken cool. Worse yet. underneath the tattered reactor nucleus was a concrete base. situated merely above a drinking fountain pool of H2O. If the U burned through the concrete. it would respond with the H2O. turning it into H and O which would quickly explode with hideous consequences. Unfortunately. the H2O could merely be drained through gate valves located at the underside of the pool. Two brave applied scientists volunteered to plunge to the underside and open the inundation Gatess ; they succeeded despite great hazard to personal wellness ( Read 132-135 ) . Though the drinking fountain pool was empty. more H2O was situated in the cellar of the reactor edifice. poured there when operators tried to chill a non-existent reactor in the gap proceedingss of the accident. A group of firemans volunteered to run big hosieries into the cellar. which could be used to run out this unsafe sum of H2O. By May 7. all of this H2O was wholly drained. extinguishing the immediate concern of a ruinous detonation which could destruct the other Chernobyl reactor units ( Read 135-137 ) . At this point. there was small opportunity that the reactor would disastrously detonate once more. Attention now turned to long-run containment of the radioactive wastes produced by the Chernobyl accident. Highly radioactive dust was buried in over 800 impermanent entombment sites. decreasing the immediate hazard to the population of Ukraine. but potentially endangering future coevalss and the long term wellness of belowground aqueducts. By the terminal of 1986. the highly rad ioactive reactor nucleus was encased in a big concrete-and-steel â€Å"sarcophagus† ( â€Å"Chernobyl Accident† ) . This sarcophagus was built–using the staying structural constituents of the unit four edifice for support–as a series of lifting subdivisions wholly enveloping the reactor country. In add-on. a immense concrete divider was erected to divide the unit four edifice from the next unit three composite. Finally. over three hundred detector devices have been embedded in the entombed reactor to supervise internal temperature and radiation degrees ( â€Å"Nuclear Power† 73-75 ) . After the Chernobyl catastrophe. the international community became progressively concerned with older â€Å"Soviet-designed atomic power reactors runing without basic safety characteristics such as exigency nucleus chilling systems. protective constructions to incorporate radioactive releases in the event of an accident. and skilled personnel† ( GAO/N8IAD-92-28 4 ) . Chernobyl has increased international argument about doing the International Atomic Energy Agency s criterions of safety mandatary for all atomic powers. However. as most nations–including the United States–do non want national sovereignty infringed by international organisations. acceptance of new crit erions and their enforcement have been badly limited ( GAO/N8IAD-92-28 4 ) . While several steps have been devised to clean-up the immediate effects following the Chernobyl catastrophe. the most of import issue–that of guaranting safe atomic power for the future–has yet to be addressed. Nuclear power advocators must recognize that another Chernobyl catastrophe may be the entire decease knell for practical utilizations of atomic energy for at least the following coevals. Therefore. applied scientists. scientists. and politicians must guarantee that all new atomic reactors meet extremely rigorous safety demands. while old. obsolescent reactors are rapidly and consistently retired from active service. As the scientific community has come to a general consensus that the universe will shortly be plagued with acute dodo fuel deficits. the most immediate solutions appear to lie with atomic power. Ironically. the most long-run solution to the energy demands of the universe besides appear to lie with an advanced yet extremely different signifier of atomi c energy. In the following subdivision. a few of the most promising atomic engineerings will be mentioned. One of the most promising atomic engineerings that could be implemented about instantly is the alleged â€Å"inherently safe† atomic reactor. In this type of reactor. the nucleus is built below the land. following to a big beginning of H2O. Therefore. if an accident were to happen. the nucleus could immediately be flooded. forestalling a Chernobyl-type detonation or a Three Mile Island type meltdown. Besides. a reactor of this type would utilize negative power-reactivity feedbacks to maintain it working in normal operating parametric quantities. This means that if there were a leak in the reactor. the loss of H2O would do fewer neutrons to be absorbed by the fuel elements. doing the overall power end product of the reactor to cut down. In this manner. as coolant lessenings. the power end product of the reactor automatically adjusts to a safe degree. This contrasts with the positive power-reactivity feedback systems in the RBMK reactor type used at the Chernobyl works. When the works began to lose coolant. it increased power. doing a monolithic and unmanageable detonation ( â€Å"Energy Conversion† ) . The energy that powers the Sun is the ultimate end for atomic natural philosophies: merger. In a atomic merger reactor. two light elements–usually two different signifiers of H. heavy hydrogen and tritium–are combined to organize a individual. heavier component. In the procedure. nevertheless. some of the mass of each light atom is straight converted to energy. Because affair contains so much energy per unit of mass. a self-sustained atomic merger reactor would supply world with a virtually illimitable supply of energy. Furthermore. hydrogen the most likely campaigner to power a merger reactor is the most abundant component in the existence and is readily available for a atomic reactor. However. a self-sustained merger reaction has proven highly hard. chiefly because merger requires that a plasma of several hundred million grades Celsius be held at a distance off from the reactor walls at a denseness sufficient to let the plasma to be self-sufficient. In other words. the plasma must hold adequate mean transitional kinetic energy to inflame a merger reaction in atoms ejected sometime after the initial ignition. Fusion has been successfully demonstrated in the research lab despite the fact that it presently takes more energy to get down merger than can be obtained from the short pulses the reactors operate in ( Knief 506-510 ) . Decision In this unbelievable epoch of spread outing cognition and engineering. adult male has been blessed with the power to make and destruct with incredible efficiency and pitilessness. But with power comes duty. a duty all excessively neglected by even the most sharp and learned within society. Because catastrophes such as Chernobyl are the pinnacle of long ironss of sloppiness. they serve to foreground this disregard and demo how seemingly infallible engineerings can travel disastrously incorrect. Though Chernobyl was a calamity in the worst sense. it forced a complete reevaluation of the atomic industry and may forestall farther such accidents. However. history has shown clip and clip once more that adult male has an improbably short memory and normally reverts back to old-habits. regardless of the cost. It can merely be hoped that the following century will be dominated by people of vision ; those who would make bold to woolgather the impossible. and so do it world. These people must encompass atomic merger as the lone energy beginning capable of supplying humanity with a long term solution to its energy demands. The old frights. hates. and ignorance of atomic power must be erased. paving the manner for a hereafter dominated by this clean. amazing beginning of energy.

Questioning The Constitutionality Of Celebrating Religious Holidays At

Questioning the Constitutionality of Celebrating Religious Holidays at Public Expense. It is unconstitutional for local, state or federal governments to favor one religion over another? Government can show favoritism toward religion by displaying religious symbols in public places at taxpayer expense, by sponsoring events like Christmas concerts, caroling, or by supporting the teaching of religious ideas. It appears the United States government has had a history of favoring Christianity. The United States government's favoritism of Christianity is a clear violation of the First Amendment. This amendment states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." There is another reference to religion in Article 6, Section 3. This clause states "the United States and the several States shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution, but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." There have been several court cases on this and related issues which include Engel vs. Vitale, Everson vs. the Board of Education, and Lynch vs. Donnelly, the "Creche case". In 1947, in the Everson vs. Board of Education case, the Supreme Court ruled that the 14th amendment prevented the States and the and the Federal government from setting up a church, passing laws that favor any religion, or using tax money to support any religion. Justice Hugo Black "incorporated" the First Amendment's establishment clause into the 14th Amendment which states that "the State shall not deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of laws and due process. After this trial, people began to question whether school prayer was constitutional (pg. 93-94, Klinker). The "creche case," Lynch vs. Donnelly, came from Rhode Island in 1980. In this case, the city offical included a creche, or nativity scene, in their city's annual Christmas display that included all traditional Christmas symbols. Chief Justice Warren E. Burger represented the court's opinion when he stated that, "Nor does the constitution require complete separation of church and state; it affirmatively mandates accommodation, not merely tolerance, of all religions, and forbids hostility toward any." Justices Brennan, Marshall, Blackman, and Stevens dissented. They thought the "primary effect of including a nativity scene in the city's display is. . . to place the government's impremature approval on the particular religion's beliefs exemplified by the creche." They argued that it clearly violated the First Amendment (p. 99, Witt). These cases demonstrate a pattern of Constitutional thought by high courts prohibiting the promotion of particular religious ideas, and the spending of tax dollars on events that promote particular religious views. A logical extension of this pattern can be made to the spending of tax dollars for decorating towns on reli gious holidays, such as Christmas. Local, state, and federal governments attempt to get around the prohibitions of the Everson and Lynch cases by decorating the streets in town with non-religious symbols such as lights, trees, wreaths and other objects that symbolize the season. But, religious people think the season itself has religious meaning. Using tax money to decorate for a religious holiday not celebrated by everyone is unconstitutional because these symbols support one religion over no religion. The First Amendment prohibits this. We understand that public school prayer discriminates against some religious views so it is prohibited in public schools. Similarly, Christmas concerts play a role similar to the teaching of creationism and prayer. The Christmas concerts subconsiously influence students toward the beliefs of Christianity. To be fair to non-Christian groups, converting "Christmas" concerts to "Holiday" concerts would maintain the "separation of church and state." O ne could recognize the beliefs of many religions or none. One could play music from several religions or non-religious music. Religion is a personal belief. There are so many religions to choose from, including the choice of no religion. It is impossible to decide that one belief is right and another is wrong. So it is reasonable to say that it is unconstitutional for government to favor Christianity over other religions, including Athieism. Instead of using tax dollars to decorate the streets for the holidays, we could use the money for other things like playgrounds and helping the homeless. Questioning The Constitutionality Of Celebrating Religious Holidays At Questioning the Constitutionality of Celebrating Religious Holidays at Public Expense. It is unconstitutional for local, state or federal governments to favor one religion over another? Government can show favoritism toward religion by displaying religious symbols in public places at taxpayer expense, by sponsoring events like Christmas concerts, caroling, or by supporting the teaching of religious ideas. It appears the United States government has had a history of favoring Christianity. The United States government's favoritism of Christianity is a clear violation of the First Amendment. This amendment states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." There is another reference to religion in Article 6, Section 3. This clause states "the United States and the several States shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution, but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." There have been several court cases on this and related issues which include Engel vs. Vitale, Everson vs. the Board of Education, and Lynch vs. Donnelly, the "Creche case". In 1947, in the Everson vs. Board of Education case, the Supreme Court ruled that the 14th amendment prevented the States and the and the Federal government from setting up a church, passing laws that favor any religion, or using tax money to support any religion. Justice Hugo Black "incorporated" the First Amendment's establishment clause into the 14th Amendment which states that "the State shall not deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of laws and due process. After this trial, people began to question whether school prayer was constitutional (pg. 93-94, Klinker). The "creche case," Lynch vs. Donnelly, came from Rhode Island in 1980. In this case, the city offical included a creche, or nativity scene, in their city's annual Christmas display that included all traditional Christmas symbols. Chief Justice Warren E. Burger represented the court's opinion when he stated that, "Nor does the constitution require complete separation of church and state; it affirmatively mandates accommodation, not merely tolerance, of all religions, and forbids hostility toward any." Justices Brennan, Marshall, Blackman, and Stevens dissented. They thought the "primary effect of including a nativity scene in the city's display is. . . to place the government's impremature approval on the particular religion's beliefs exemplified by the creche." They argued that it clearly violated the First Amendment (p. 99, Witt). These cases demonstrate a pattern of Constitutional thought by high courts prohibiting the promotion of particular religious ideas, and the spending of tax dollars on events that promote particular religious views. A logical extension of this pattern can be made to the spending of tax dollars for decorating towns on reli gious holidays, such as Christmas. Local, state, and federal governments attempt to get around the prohibitions of the Everson and Lynch cases by decorating the streets in town with non-religious symbols such as lights, trees, wreaths and other objects that symbolize the season. But, religious people think the season itself has religious meaning. Using tax money to decorate for a religious holiday not celebrated by everyone is unconstitutional because these symbols support one religion over no religion. The First Amendment prohibits this. We understand that public school prayer discriminates against some religious views so it is prohibited in public schools. Similarly, Christmas concerts play a role similar to the teaching of creationism and prayer. The Christmas concerts subconsiously influence students toward the beliefs of Christianity. To be fair to non-Christian groups, converting "Christmas" concerts to "Holiday" concerts would maintain the "separation of church and state." O ne could recognize the beliefs of many religions or none. One could play music from several religions or non-religious music. Religion is a personal belief. There are so many religions to choose from, including the choice of no religion. It is impossible to decide that one belief is right and another is wrong. So it is reasonable to say that it is unconstitutional for government to favor Christianity over other religions, including Athieism. Instead of using tax dollars to decorate the streets for the holidays, we could use the money for other things like playgrounds and helping the homeless. Questioning The Constitutionality Of Celebrating Religious Holidays At Questioning the Constitutionality of Celebrating Religious Holidays at Public Expense. It is unconstitutional for local, state or federal governments to favor one religion over another? Government can show favoritism toward religion by displaying religious symbols in public places at taxpayer expense, by sponsoring events like Christmas concerts, caroling, or by supporting the teaching of religious ideas. It appears the United States government has had a history of favoring Christianity. The United States government's favoritism of Christianity is a clear violation of the First Amendment. This amendment states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." There is another reference to religion in Article 6, Section 3. This clause states "the United States and the several States shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution, but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." There have been several court cases on this and related issues which include Engel vs. Vitale, Everson vs. the Board of Education, and Lynch vs. Donnelly, the "Creche case". In 1947, in the Everson vs. Board of Education case, the Supreme Court ruled that the 14th amendment prevented the States and the and the Federal government from setting up a church, passing laws that favor any religion, or using tax money to support any religion. Justice Hugo Black "incorporated" the First Amendment's establishment clause into the 14th Amendment which states that "the State shall not deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of laws and due process. After this trial, people began to question whether school prayer was constitutional (pg. 93-94, Klinker). The "creche case," Lynch vs. Donnelly, came from Rhode Island in 1980. In this case, the city offical included a creche, or nativity scene, in their city's annual Christmas display that included all traditional Christmas symbols. Chief Justice Warren E. Burger represented the court's opinion when he stated that, "Nor does the constitution require complete separation of church and state; it affirmatively mandates accommodation, not merely tolerance, of all religions, and forbids hostility toward any." Justices Brennan, Marshall, Blackman, and Stevens dissented. They thought the "primary effect of including a nativity scene in the city's display is. . . to place the government's impremature approval on the particular religion's beliefs exemplified by the creche." They argued that it clearly violated the First Amendment (p. 99, Witt). These cases demonstrate a pattern of Constitutional thought by high courts prohibiting the promotion of particular religious ideas, and the spending of tax dollars on events that promote particular religious views. A logical extension of this pattern can be made to the spending of tax dollars for decorating towns on reli gious holidays, such as Christmas. Local, state, and federal governments attempt to get around the prohibitions of the Everson and Lynch cases by decorating the streets in town with non-religious symbols such as lights, trees, wreaths and other objects that symbolize the season. But, religious people think the season itself has religious meaning. Using tax money to decorate for a religious holiday not celebrated by everyone is unconstitutional because these symbols support one religion over no religion. The First Amendment prohibits this. We understand that public school prayer discriminates against some religious views so it is prohibited in public schools. Similarly, Christmas concerts play a role similar to the teaching of creationism and prayer. The Christmas concerts subconsiously influence students toward the beliefs of Christianity. To be fair to non-Christian groups, converting "Christmas" concerts to "Holiday" concerts would maintain the "separation of church and state." O ne could recognize the beliefs of many religions or none. One could play music from several religions or non-religious music. Religion is a personal belief. There are so many religions to choose from, including the choice of no religion. It is impossible to decide that one belief is right and another is wrong. So it is reasonable to say that it is unconstitutional for government to favor Christianity over other religions, including Athieism. Instead of using tax dollars to decorate the streets for the holidays, we could use the money for other things like playgrounds and helping the homeless.